F. W. Chesson HP/BULLFROG.HTM
Rev: 11 July, 2008
SALUTING THE AMERICAN BULLFROG
Most of the following has been gleaned from the ever-expanding Web....
Visit Frogland!
Build-A-Frog! Tadpole Kit yields
long-lived, entirely-aquatic African frog.
Visit Nature.Net Forums
An Item From:
The Wildlife Garden Forum
North American Bullfrogs
Posted by Edd Harris
eddmg@prodigy.net
The American Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana (Shaw), our largest native
frog, is nomally found from New England south and west to the Rockies,
but has been introduced to many other areas. This was done officially,
by state fish and game departments, and also through individual efforts.
Ever since, Big Bull has been increasingly blamed for a host of ecological
problems, ranging from eating fish and ducklings, wiping out other native
frogs to just disrupting nature in general.
In California, imported bullfrogs (and their voracious tadpoles)
have been cited for the near extinction of the native red-legged frog,
Rana aurora, and its several cousins.
There seems to be no middle ground, when it comes to bullfrogs....
"Some people hate them with a passion and think they should be wiped
out, while others love them and raise them in ponds and fish pools.
What do you think of bullfrogs? Should we raise them in our ponds,
or discourage them in any way possible? Below is a good site to learn about
our native bullfrogs...."
A Follow-Up Posting:
RE: North American Bullfrogs, Posted by: Bill Bevil (bbevil3@juno.com)
As you know from my postings on the Frog Forum, I am still on the fence
regarding Bullfrogs. I really don't think there's any harm in introducing
them to an urban wildlife garden, especially since these locales are often
devoid of any amphibians at all. I will probably break down and buy some
bullfrog tadpoles...having them is better than having nothing at all!
Speaking of BUYING, though, wouldn't it be great if there were vendors
out there who sold tadpoles for species other than Bullfrogs? I personally
would rather use another species if I had a choice, just because there is
so much controversy, but the only way I'm gonna get them is by collecting
them from the wild. Bill (Comment: See Frog Kit, above!)
Bullfrog At Home:
The following is taken from an Ohio source, but is applicable to much
of New England and Middle America:
"An Introduction to the Natural History of the Frogs and Toads of Ohio."
"A Big Hanfulla Boo-Frawg...!"
The bullfrog is Ohio's largest frog, reaching a body length of from
four to seven inches (100-175 mm). Very aquatic, it seldom ventures far
from permanent ponds, lakes or large streams and rivers. It emerges from
hibernation and becomes active in early April but really prefers warmer
weather and does not really begin calling at breeding sites until mid to
late May. (In Connecticut mid-May is more typical of bullfrog emergance)
Their sonorous calls can be heard into late-July, or even August, but some
individuals may remain active until early October. Farther south, in the
latitude of Philadelphia, solitary individuals are reported to remain
active in spring-houses the year-around.
The skin typically varies from olive brown through shades of green,
with spots or blotches scattered about the back. Age, light and temperature
are also influencing factors.
Bullfrogs lack the dorso-lateral folds characteristic of other frogs,
like their smaller cousins the Green Frog, Rana Clamitans (LeConte). Adult
sex can be determined by comparing diameter of the tympanic membrane or
"ear disk" relative to that of the eye; in males, it is much larger than
the eye, while in females it is equal to or smaller. The male's throat is
often bright yellow, whereas females have an off-white pale yellow mottled
throat.
Male frogs call to both attract potential mates and to proclaim their
territory. They have paired vocal sacs, sometimes likened to built-in
Helmholtz Resonators. Their low-frequency bass-fiddle calls can be heard
booming over a distance of a kilometer from breeding sites. The sound is
reminiscent of a bull bellowing in the distance, hence their common name.
Spectrograms of typical calls show a 300 Hz scan with 0.6 second duration.
After uttering challenges to encroaching males, real combat can
develop, the two contestants trying to clasp each other in seeming death-
like grips. (Biting does not appear a typical combat option, but an only-
slightly smaller rival male may very well end up by going head-first...
"down the hatch!")
Mating occurrs in shallow water, or even under water. Fertilized eggs,
averaging 1.3 mm diameter, are laid in a jelly-like surface mass. Up to
20,000 eggs may be produced by a single large female. These hatch in four
or five days, depending on water temperature.
Bullfrog tadpoles are olive-brown on back and sides. Body, tail, and
crests are dotted with small dark spots having distinct, sharply defined
margins. Tadpole development is comparatively slow, with up to three years
required to achieve a 70-140 mm length usually attained before metamorphisis.
Rear legs appear first, and may be present for a full year. The front legs
appear only at the very end of transition, erupting from now-useless gill
openings, as lungs evolve. The head shape changes radically, with elevated
eye-sockets and a wide mouth. Though now a full-fledged air-breather, the
froglet keeps his tadpole tail for some time, drawing upon its food reserves
while learning to hunt moving prey, and to avoid being eaten by almost every
other creature in the pond...including his own canibalistic parents....
"Great set of legs on you, kid! What say we do lunch together...?"
Two to four years are necessary for a bullfrog to reach sexual maturity.
In the wild a frog may live from seven to nine years, (with a good measure of
luck!) while the record for captive specimens has reached 16 years.
American Bullfrog Range
As noted by frog calls in several Connecticut ponds, bullfrogs tend to
take over smaller bodies of water, and may well eat their green frog cousins
out of house and home. After consuming every moving thing in sight, including
their own smaller offspring, the big guys then become the prey of such
predators as herons, raccoons, snakes and various members of the Mink Family.
Then, smaller frogs slowly replentish the local amphibian scene...until the
return of R. C. Shaw...!
Bullfrog Abroad:
In Japan, where he was introduced to rice-paddy culture ca 1920,
the bullfrog is known as both Tonosama-Gaeru and Ushi-Gaeru.
RANA-NON-GRATA...?
According to this file, Rana Catesbiana may have been TOO
successful in adapting to foreign waters. One report has it that by
Royale Decree, or perhaps by Act of Parliament, bullfrogs and even
their tadpoles are now contraband throught the United Kingdom, with
appropiate penalties for their mere possession. Europeann complaints
have also arisen of late. Can an Emergancy Action by NATO Forces be
far behind...?
http://www.zavod-symbiosis.si/pdf_files/literature_list_Europe.pdf.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Institute Symbiosis Institute for nature conservation research and education,
www.zavod-symbiosis.si
LIST OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE ON THE AMERICAN BULLFROG (Rana catesbeiana)
Albertini, G. (1970). Sulla diffusione della rana toro (Rana catesbeiana/Shaw)
importata nel Mantovano. Atti. Mem Accad. Agric. Sci. Lett. Verona, 145:67-106.
Albertini, G. & B. Lanza (1987). Rana catesbeiana Shaw, 1802 in Italy.
Alytes. 6 (3-4): 117-129.
Andreone, F. & R. Marocco (1998). Rana catesbeiana Shaw, 1802. p. 192-193
In: Andreone, F. & Sindaco R. (eds.). Erpetologia del Piemonte e della Valle
d'Aosta. Atlante degli
Anfibi e dei Rettili. Monografie XXVI. Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali,
Torino.
Anonymus [no year]. Nota de prensa: Granajas de rana toro Americana (Spain)
Anonymous (1992). Leerdam in ban superbrulkikker.de Telegraaf.17/06/1992
Anonymus (2000). Press Releases: Look out bullfrogs about. 06/09/2000.
English nature, United Kingdom: www-english-nature.org.uk/news/story.asp ID=12
Anonymous (2001a). Lov na abe. Delo. 22/10/2001 [a newspaper article]
Anonymous (2001b). Gefahr durch gefr---Ÿige Ochsenfrosche. Die Rheinpfalz.
22/09/2001 [newspaper article]
Anonymus (2001c). Gef--hrden Ochsenfrosche jetzt auch die Fauna Deutschlands?
DGHT Newsticker 24/08/2001.
Arano, B., G. Llorente, M. Garc--a-Paris & P. Herrero (1995). Species
Translocation Menaces Iberian Waterfrogs. Conservation Biology. 9(1): 196-198.
Ayll-n, E. (1999). Posici--n de la AHE sobre las granjas de rana toro americana
en el estado Espanol. Bol. Asoc. Herpetol. Esp. 10: 58-59.
Bagnoli, C. & G. Albertini (1984). Sulla durata della vita larvale nelle
popolazioni di Rana catesbeiana Shaw acclimatate in Italia. Studi Trentini
di Scienze Naturali. 61: 283-300.
Banks, B., J. Foster, T. Langton & K. Morgan (2000). British Bullfrogs?
British Wildlife, June 2000: 327-330.
Banks, B., C. Beckett, J. Foster, T. Langton & K. Morgan (2001). Control of
North American Bullfrogs in England. Information note provided to complement
poster presentation at 4th World Congress of Herpetology, Bentota, Sri Lanka,
2-9 December 2001.
B-hme, W. (2000). When does a foreign species deserve a "premit of residence"?
Non-indigenous species (NIS): Examples of varying exoticness and varying
immigration age, taken from herpetology. Ethology Ecology and Evolution.
12(3): 326-328. This list compiled by P. Veenvliet and J. Kus Veenvliet, under
the scope of the project Study of application of EU wildlife trade regulations
in relation to species which form an ecological threat to EU fauna and flora
which was carried out by Amphi Consult, Denmark for the European Commission,
DG Environment.
Boettger, C. R. (1941). Der Versuch einer Ochsenfroschzucht in der L-neburger
Heide. Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin.
p. 216-221.
Brabadillo, L.J., J.I. Lacomba, V. P-rez-Mellado, V. Sancho, L.F.L--pez-Jurado
(1999). Anfibios y Reptiles de la Peninsula Iberica, Baleares y Canarias.
Guida ilustrada para identificar y conocer todas las especias. p. 360.
Breuls, W. (1993). Brulkikker eet huismus. Natuurhistorisch Maandblad. 82(3): 68
Capocaccia, L. (1957). Gli Anfibi come animali da acquario-terrario. Zoo.
(Boll. Giard. zool. Milano, Torino, Varallo). 3(3-4): 126-138.
Co-c, C. & M. D=aint (2001). Invasion de la grenouille taureau (Rana catesbeiana
Shaw) en France: Synth=se bibliographique --- suivi 2000-2001 == perspectives.
Cistude nature, D=cembre 2001.
Dalbeck, L., M. Hachtel, A. Heyd, K. Sch-fer, M. Sch--fer & K. Weddeling (1997)
Amphibien im Rhein-Sieg-Kreis und in der Stadt Bonn: Verbreitung, Gew=sserpr
=ferenzen, Vergesellschaftung und Gef=hrdung. Decheniana (Bonn). 150: 235-292.
Dubois, A. (1983). A propos de cuisses de grenouilles. Protection des
amphibiens, arretes ministeriels, projets d'=levage, gestion des populations
naturelles, enqu=tes de repartions, production, importations et consommation;
une equation difficile a resoudre. Les propositions de la societe batracho-
logique de France. Alytes 2(3): 69-111.
Eckstein H. P. & H. Meinig (1989). Umsiedlungen und Aussetzungen von Amphibien
und Reptilien in Wuppertal. Jahrbuch fur Feldherpetologie. 3: 168-176.
Espagnet, P. (1990). La grenouille-torreau arrive en Gironde. SudOuest
(Chronique: Environment no du 9 novembre 1990).
Fog, K., D. F. de Lasson & A. Schmedes (1997). Nordens padder og krybdyr.
G.E.C. Gads Forlag.
Frazer, J.F.D. (1964). Introduced species of amphibians and reptiles in main-
land Britain. British Journal of Herpetology. 3(6.): 145-150.
Froglife (1997). Exotic Reptiles and Amphibians in the Wild. Information and
advice on the problems of non-native speices in Britain and Ireland. Froglife
advice sheet 8. [a brochure]
Garc=a-Par=s, M. (1991). Primeros datos sobre Rana catesbeiana/Shaw, 1802
(Anura: Ranidae) en Espana. Rev. Esp.Herp. 5: 89-92.
Graaf, de Ir. E. (1990) Handel in en verspeiding van de "brulkikker." (bullfrog)
Fauna Inlichtingen Bulletin Signaalver No. 1. pp.15
Gubbels R.E.M.B. (1992). Uitheemse amfibien en reptielen. p. 274-277. In:
Coelen, J.E.M. van der (ed.) (1992). Verspreiding en ecologie van amfibien en
reptielen in Limburg. Stichting Natuurpublicaties Limburg, Stichting RAVON.
Maastricht, Nijmegen.
Haffner, P. (1997). Bilan des introductions r=centes =amphibiens et de reptiles
dans les milieux aquatiques continentaux de France Metropolitaine. Bulletin
Francais de la P=che et de la Pisciculture. 344/345 : 155-163.
Hamann O., J. Baag=e, I.R. Weidema, P. Andersen-Harlid (eds.) (2001).
Invasive arter og GMO'er == nye trusler mod naturen. Temarapport nr.1. 2001.
Naturr=¥det. p. 74
Jooris, R. (2000). Exoten onder de inheemse herpetofauna. De Wielewaal. 66:
42 x 47.
Jooris, R. (2002). Palmt de Stierkikker uit Noord-Amerika ook Vlaanderen
in? Een stand van zaken. Natuur.focus. 1(1): 13-15.
Kok, Ph. J. R. (2001). Note sur (le) introduction de Rana bedriagae Camerano,
1882 (Anura, Ranidae) en Belgique et ses possibles implications sur la
batrachofaune indigine. Les Naturalistes belges. 82(1): 25-30.
Lapini, L., A. Dall'Asta, N. Bressi, S. Dolce & P. Pellarini (1999). Atlante
corologico degli anfibi e dei rettili del friuli-Venezia Giulia. Museo Friul.
St. Nat. ed., Udine. Pubblicazione n. 43.
Lanza, B. (1962).On the introduction of Rana ridibunda Pallas and Rana
catesbeiana Shaw in Italy. Copeia. 3: 642-643.
Institute Symbiosis == Institute for nature conservation research and
education, www.zavod-symbiosis.si Lanza B. & V. Ferri (1997). Rana catesbeiana
p. 132-133. In: Gasc, J.-P., A. Cabela, J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic, D. Dolmen, K.
Grossenbacher, P. Haffner, J. Lescure, H. Martens, J. P. MartÃnez Rica, H.
Maurin, M.E. Oliviera, T. S. Sofianidou, M. Veith & A. Zuiderwijk (eds.).
Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles in Europe, Societas Europaea Herpetologica &
Museum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris.
Laufer, H.(2001). Anmerkungen zur Biologie und =–kologie des Ochsenfrosches
Rana catesbeiana. [unpublished report].
Laufer, H. & M. Waitzman (2002). Der Ochsenfrosch (Rana catesbeiana) am
n=rdlichen Oberrhein (Baden-Wurttemberg). Herpetofauna. 24(136), Februar
2002: 5-14.
Leiter-L=rn, A. (1927). Die Zucht des Ochsenfr0sches. Fischerei-Zeitschrift
30: 499.
Lever, C. (1994). Naturalized animals: The ecology of successfully introduced
species. T & AD Poyser Ltd., London.
Malkmus, R. (1995). Die Amphibien und Reptilien Portugals, Madieras und der
Azoren. Verbreitung, =kolgie, Schutz. Die Neue Brehm-B=cherei Bd. 621. p.,
Westarp Wissenschaften, Magdeburg. p. 50.
Manhold. J. (2002). Ochsenfrosch-Alarm in Meckenheim. General Anzeiger.
3. May 2002. p. 11.
Mantziou, G., M. Dretakis & P. Lymberakis (1998). Who is next? A history of
recent introductions and probable extinctions of reptile and amphibian
species of Crete. Poster presented on 10th Ordinary General Meeting of
Societas Europaea Herpetologica.
Mazzotti S., G. Caramori & C. Barbieri (1999). Atlante degli Anfibi e dei
Rettili dell'Emilia-Romagna (aggiornamento 1992/1997), Quad. Staz. Ecol. civ.
Mus. St. nat. Ferrara, 12. pp. 46-47-
Mazzoti, S. & Stagni, G. (1993). Rana toro. (bullfrog) p. 70-71. In: Mazzotti
S. & Stagni G. (1993).Gli Anfibi e i Rettili dell'Emilia-Romagna (/Amphibia,
Reptilia/). Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Ferrara.
Ministerio dell =Ambiente e della tuteladel territorio (2002). La fauna in
Italia. Touring club italiano, Milano. 448 p.
Mudde, P.(1992). De brulkikker (Rana catesbeiana), herkenning en gevaar voor
andere soorten. Lacerta. 50(3): 121-128.
Ness, N. 2002. Froschplage. Stern magazin. No. 43, p. 23. [newspaper article]
Neveu, A. (1997). =introduction d=esp=ces allochtones de grenouilles vertes en
France, deux problemes differents: celui de R. catesbeiana et celui des
taxons non presents du complexe esculenta. Bulletin Francais de la Peche et
de la Pisciculture. 344/345: 165-171.
Niferik, van (1989). The American bullfrog. A case of adulteration of the
local fauna or noise pollution? Amoeba. 63:6.
N=llert, A. & C. N=llert (1992). Die Amphibien Europas: Bestimmung, Gef=hrdung,
Schutz. Franckh-Kosmos, Stuttgart. p.363-365.
Peleguezuelos, J.M. (1997). Distribuci0n y biogeografia de los anfibios y los
reptiles en Espana y Portugal. Monografias de Herpetologia. Volumen 3.
Universidad de Granada, Granada.
Pollo, C. J. (2001). Informe sobre la existencia de una granaja de cr=a de
rana toro (Rana catesbeiana) en Brugos de Fenar, provincia de Le=n. Proyecto
Asociacion Herpetologica Espanola - Ministerio de medio ambiente, subproyecto
especies introducidas. [an unpublished report].
Schops, I. (1999). Brulkikker. Rana Catesbeiana (Shaw, 1802). p. 128-129. In:
Schops, I. (1999). Amfibienn en Reptielen in Limburg. Verspreiding,
bescherming en herkenning. Likona, Genk.
Scoccianti, C. (2001). Amphibia: aspetti di ecologia della conservazione.
[Amphibia: Aspects of Conservation Biology]. WWF report.
Societas Herpetologica Italica (1996). Atlante provvisorio degli Anfibi e dei
Rettili Italiani. Estratto dagli Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale
"G. Doria". XCI, 12th Maggio 1996.41: 95-101, 139 (a map). Institute Symbiosis
= Institute for nature conservation research and education, www.zavod-
symbiosis.si Smit, G. & A. Zuiderwijk (1990). Herpetogeografische dienst
'Lacerta', Nieuwsbrief Nr. 4. Mededelingenblad Lacerta. 20(4): 9-14.
Sneep, J.-W. (1999). Control and eradication of non-native terrestrial
vertebrates in the Netherlands. p.51-57. In: Environmental Encounters No. 41,
Workshop on control of non-native terrestrial vertebrates, Malta 3-5 June 1999.
Stumpel, A. H. P. (1991). Brulkikker plant zich met succes voort in Nederland.
Mededelingenblad Lacerta. 21 (8): 9.
Stumpel, A. H. P. (1992). Successful reproduction of introduced bullfrogs Rana
catesbeiana in northwestern Europe: a potential threat to indigenous
amphibians. Biological conservation. 60: 61-62.
Thiesmeier, B., O. Jäger & U. Fritz (1994). Erfolgreiche Reproduktion des
Ochsenfrosches (Rana catesbeiana) im nerdlichen Landkreis B=blingen (Baden-
Wurttemberg). Zeitschrift fur Feldherpetologie. 1: 169-176.
Timmermans, G. (1993). Een "wilde" Brulkikker in de buurt van Amsterdam.
Natura.3(4): 83-85.
Touratier, L. (1992a). Premiere apparition en France (region Aquitaine) de
=une grenouille giante Americaine : Rana catesbeiana en voie de Acclimatement,
int==t zoologique et impact eventuel sur ==environnement. Bull Soc. V=.
Prat de France. 76(4): 219-228.
Touratier, L. (1992b). Similitudes et differences actuellement apparentes entre
les grenouilles-taureaux (Rana catesbeiana) e voie propagation en Italie et
en France. Emergence des questions de sante publique veterinaire. Bull Soc.
V=t. Prat de France. 76(6-7) : 349-355.
Veenvliet, P. (1996). Brulkikkers (Rana catesbeiana) in Nederland: storm in
een glas slootwater? Lacerta. 54 (5): 168-172.
Veith, M, J. Kosuch, R. Feldmann, H. Martens & A. Seitz (2000). A test for
correct species declaration of frog legs import from Indonesia into the
European Union. Biodiversity and Conservation. 9: 331-341.
Walker, M. (2001). An American Bullfrog in Paris. The Globalist 26 April 2001.
Wavrin de, H. (2000). Note sur la presence de la Grenouille Taureau (Rana
catesbeiana) en Barbant Wallon. Les Nouvelles de l'Atlas herpetologique.
Projet de nouvel atlas de Wallonie et Bruxelles, Maison Liegeoise de
l'Environnement, Liege.
Werner, E.E. & G.A. Wellborn, M.A. McPeek (1995). Diet composition in
postmetamorphic Bullfrogs and Green frogs: Implications for interspecific
predation and competition. Jornal of Herpetology. 29: 600-607.
Zuiderwijk, A. (1990). Project Reptielen - Natuurbeleidsplan. Nieuwsbrief
Nr. 4. Herpetogeografische Dienst 'Lacerta'. Mededelingenblad Lacerta.
20(10/11): 9-15.
* * *
Bullfrog On-line:
http://ag.ansc.purdue.edu/aquanic/publicat/govagen/nal/frog_culture.htm
FROG CULTURE Aquatopic. Robert S. Isenstein, August 1995. Aqua-Topics
Aquaculture Information Center National Agricultural Library...
P76 1990 1988. Lester, D. Raising bullfrogs on non-living food...?
http://bullfrogs-louisiana.com/ Bullfrogs have been an interest of
mine for many years. I have done extensive work on the challenges involved
in feeding Bullfrogs in captivity. Is eating non-moving food possible...?
http://dnr.metrokc.gov/wlr/waterres/amphibian/bullfrog.htm Bullfrog ID
in King County. New ponds especially for raising bullfrogs.
http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/conmag/1995/jul/jul6.html Raising Tadpoles
Have you wondered what it takes to raise tadpoles into frogs...?
http://www.cs.uh.edu/~clifton/helpdesk3.html The Help Desk, by Margaret
and Clif "My son is interested in raising bullfrogs for commercial use...."
http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/caer/ce/eek/teacher/frogact.htm "EEEK! Raising
Frogs in the Classroom" by Dreux Watermolen, Bureau of Integrated Science
Service, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Hatching frog eggs and
raising larval amphibians to metamorphosis can be a Big Leap....
http://www.gramps.com/text/biz2/r0163.htm RAISING AND MARKETING EXOTIC
ANIMALS FOR PROFIT. The business of raising and selling rare/unusual animals,
where both expenses and profits are much bigger than normal.
http://www.greenspun.com/bboard/q-and-a-fetch-msg.tcl?msg_id=000ANg y2k
Frog Legs? I ate wild frog legs (smoked) as a kid. Any info on raising/
growing frogs for y2k food? I remember they tasted like chicken....
http://www.mda.state.md.us/aqua/frogs. Bullfrogs. Compiled by: Ann Townsend
Young, US Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service National
Agricultural Library Alternative Farming Systems Information Center,
Beltsville, Maryland..."Raising bullfrogs on non-living food."
http://www.oit.itd.umich.edu/bio/doc.cgi/Chordata/Lissamphibia/Anura/Ranidae/
Ranacatesbeiana.ftl North American Bullfrogs
http://www.safelink.net/bullfrog/ Rana Ranch Bullfrog Farm features captive
bred, commercially raised bullfrogs.
http://www.sonic.net/melissk/index.html Melissa Kaplan's Herp Information
Collection "Nothing happens in contradiction to nature, only in contra-
diction to what we know of it."
http://www.ualberta.ca/~rswan/ERAAS/bullfrog.htm Class Amphibia includes
Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, and worm-like Caecilians....
Some Closing Observations...
LIFE, it has been said, could be a hell of a lot simpler...
just raising Bullfrogs!
Of course, there ARE problems, as you watch your little tadpoles grow
up into bearers of marketable frog legs. You might go out to the pool some
fine morning, and there are all your prize breeders, floating upside-down,
done in overnight by the Fast-Fatal French Frog Flu!
Long legs extend down into the turgid waters, distended white bellies
gleam dully, and little front hands clutch out, as in futile supplication
to the Indifferent Overcast Above....
So, you may as well buck up and hit that old road, with this bit
of great tried-and-true advice in mind:
"As you struggle through this life, Pal,
Whatever be your Goal,
Keep your eye upon the Doughnut,
And NOT upon the Hole....!"
* * *
RETURN TO INDEX